Controlling Workers

Slavery was deeply ingrained in the ancient world, persisting in both the Mediterranean and the Near East even after Christianity became the dominant religion in the fourth century. However, it’s a misconception to assume that the majority of labor in the Roman economy was performed by slaves. While this may have been the case in certain regions of Italy during the Republican period, it was no longer true for the entire empire. Slaves were viewed as investments, and landowners often avoided using them in situations where their numbers might strain resources or jeopardize their health, such as during demanding agricultural tasks or in malaria-prone areas.

As peace became established in the first century, the supply of slaves dwindled, leading to a shift towards slave breeding or the utilization of cheaper alternatives like wage labor. Public works in Rome often employed free labor instead of slaves due to the high cost associated with maintaining slave labor year-round. While slaves were not extensively used in agriculture during later periods, they played significant roles as business managers or entrepreneurs, with some receiving capital from their masters to run businesses independently.

Roman agricultural writers emphasized the importance of labor management, advocating for continuous production by maintaining surplus tools and supervising workers closely. Supervision was deemed essential for both free workers and slaves, often resulting in workers being organized into groups or teams for easier monitoring. However, methods of labor control could be harsh, such as chaining slaves together in gangs, as described by Pliny the Elder.

While these labor practices may seem severe, similar principles of labor control are observed in many modern factories. In some cases, Roman factories enforced even stricter measures, such as sealing workers’ aprons, requiring them to wear masks, or branding them to prevent escape. The exploitation of labor extended to debt bondage, where impoverished families would enter into agreements with employers to survive financially, often resulting in children being sold into servitude.

It’s important to note that not all labor in the Roman Empire was coerced. Some projects, like the construction of the eastern frontier city of Dara by Emperor Anastasius, attracted labor from across the empire by offering high wages. Evidence from papyri suggests that wage labor was prevalent in parts of the Mediterranean by the sixth century, particularly in the East.

Slavery was deeply ingrained in the fabric of ancient societies, spanning the Mediterranean and the Near East. Despite the emergence of Christianity as the state religion in the fourth century, slavery remained largely unchallenged. However, the prevalence of slavery as the primary form of labor varied across different regions and periods within the Roman Empire.